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Chapter 3 Land Resources And Agriculture
Land Use Categories
Land is a fundamental resource used by humans for a variety of purposes, including production (like agriculture), residence (settlements), and recreation (parks). You can observe diverse land uses in your surroundings – areas for rivers, forests, roads, buildings, fields, and pastures.
Maintaining Land Use Records
Land-use data in India is primarily maintained by the land revenue department. These records account for the 'reporting area', which might differ slightly from the total 'geographical area'. The geographical area is precisely measured and fixed by the Survey of India for administrative units, whereas the reporting area can vary based on land revenue records.
The land-use categories officially maintained in the Land Revenue Records are:
- Forests: This category includes areas officially classified or demarcated as forest land by the government. It's important to distinguish this from the actual area under tree cover, which might be different. An increase in this category in records doesn't necessarily mean an increase in actual forest cover.
- Barren and Wastelands: Land that is unproductive and cannot typically be cultivated with available technology. This includes areas like steep hilly terrains, deserts, and ravines.
- Land put to Non-agricultural Uses: Land occupied by human settlements (villages, towns, cities), infrastructure projects (roads, railways, canals), industrial facilities, shops, and other non-farming purposes. Growth in manufacturing and service sectors leads to an increase in this category.
- Area under Permanent Pastures and Grazing Lands: Land primarily used for livestock grazing. Much of this is owned by the village council (Panchayat) or the government and falls under Common Property Resources (CPRs). A small portion may be privately owned.
- Area under Miscellaneous Tree Crops and Groves (Not included in Net sown Area): Land covered by orchards, fruit trees, and other tree crops that are not part of regularly cultivated fields. Much of this land is privately owned.
- Culturable Wasteland: Land that has been left uncultivated for a period of more than five consecutive agricultural years. This land has the potential to be brought under cultivation after undergoing reclamation and improvement practices.
- Current Fallow: Agricultural land that is intentionally left uncultivated for a short period, typically one agricultural year or less. This is a traditional practice to allow the soil to naturally recover its fertility before the next cropping season.
- Fallow other than Current Fallow: Cultivable land that has been left uncultivated for a period longer than one agricultural year but less than five years. If left uncultivated for five years or more, it would be reclassified as culturable wasteland.
- Net Area Sown (NSA): The actual physical area of land on which crops are planted and harvested during an agricultural year. If a piece of land is sown with crops more than once in a year, it is counted only once in the Net Area Sown figure. (Note: Total area sown with crops multiple times in a year is called Gross Cropped Area - GCA).
Land-Use Changes In India
Land use patterns in a region are strongly shaped by economic activities. However, unlike dynamic economic activities, land area is fixed. Changes in land use reflect the interplay between economic evolution and the finite nature of land resources. Three key types of changes in an economy influence land use:
Economic Growth And Pressure On Land
As the size of the economy grows (due to population increase, rising incomes, technological advancements), the overall pressure on land resources intensifies. This can lead to formerly unused or marginal lands being brought into use for various purposes.
Changes In Economic Composition
Developing economies, like India, often experience structural shifts where the secondary (industrial) and tertiary (services) sectors grow faster than the primary (agriculture) sector. This process leads to a gradual conversion of agricultural land to non-agricultural uses (settlements, industries, infrastructure), particularly noticeable around urban areas.
Continued Pressure On Agricultural Land
Despite the declining share of agriculture in the overall economy, the demand and pressure on land for agricultural production often do not decrease in developing countries. This is because:
- The proportion of the population dependent on agriculture for livelihood declines much slower than the sector's contribution to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP).
- The increasing total population needs to be fed, requiring sustained or increased agricultural output from potentially limited or shrinking land area.
India's economy has undergone significant transformations over the past 4-5 decades, leading to notable changes in land use patterns between 1950-51 and 2014-15. When analyzing these changes, remember that percentages are based on the 'reporting area', and a decrease in one land category often corresponds to an increase in another, as the total reporting area is relatively constant.
Changes in major land-use categories between 1950-51 and 2014-15 (% of Reporting Area):
| Land Use Category | 1950-51 | 2014-15 |
|---|---|---|
| Forests | 17 | 23.3 |
| Area under non-agricultural use | 3.3 | 8.7 |
| Barren and unculturable waste land | 13.4 | 5.5 |
| Permanent pasture and grazing land | 2.3 | 3.3 |
| Area Under Misc. Tree crops and groves | 6.9 | 1.0 |
| Culturable Waste Land | 8 | 4 |
| Current fallow | 3.7 | 4.9 |
| Fallow other than Current fallow | 6.1 | 3.6 |
| Net Area Sown | 41.7 | 45.5 |
Categories Showing Increase:
- Area under non-agricultural uses: Shows the highest rate of increase. This is driven by the growth of industrial and service sectors and the expansion of related infrastructure (roads, buildings). Both urban and rural settlements have expanded, consuming land previously used for other purposes, including agricultural land and wastelands.
- Area under forest: The increase in this category often reflects an increase in the *demarcated* area classified as forest in government records, rather than necessarily a proportional increase in actual forest cover on the ground.
- Current fallow lands: The share of current fallow fluctuates significantly year to year, primarily influenced by variations in rainfall and the rotation of crops. The figure shows a snapshot comparison, not a consistent trend.
- Net area sown: This category has shown a recent increase, largely by bringing previously culturable wasteland under cultivation. Before this, it had experienced a slow decline, mainly due to agricultural land being converted to non-agricultural uses (observe construction on farmlands near settlements).
Categories Showing Decline:
- Barren and wasteland, culturable wasteland, area under tree crops and groves, and fallow lands: These categories have generally shown a decline. This is mainly because increased pressure on land for both agriculture and non-agricultural purposes has led to the utilization of these previously unused or underutilised lands. The decline in land under tree crops and groves might also be due to conversion for agricultural purposes.
Common Property Resources
Land ownership in India is broadly categorised into private land (owned by individuals or groups) and Common Property Resources (CPRs). CPRs are lands owned by the state but designated for the use of the entire community.
Importance Of Cprs
CPRs are vital for rural communities, providing essential resources like fodder for livestock, fuelwood for households, and minor forest products (fruits, nuts, medicinal plants). They are particularly crucial for the livelihoods of landless individuals, marginal farmers, and other economically weaker sections who depend on income from their livestock but have limited or no access to private land for grazing or cultivation. CPRs also play a significant role for women in rural areas, who are often responsible for collecting fuel and fodder, although degradation of CPR areas can increase the time and effort required for these tasks.
CPRs are defined by the community's right of access and usage, often with specific obligations, without individual property rights. Examples include community forests, village pastures, shared water bodies, and other public spaces where a group larger than a single household exercises usage rights and shares management responsibility.
Agricultural Land Use In India
Land is of paramount importance to the agricultural sector and the livelihoods dependent on it, more so than for secondary or tertiary activities.
Cruciality Of Land In Agriculture
- Agriculture is fundamentally a land-based activity; land's contribution to agricultural output is more direct and significant than in other sectors. Consequently, limited access to land is strongly linked to poverty in rural areas.
- The inherent quality of land (soil fertility, topography, etc.) directly impacts agricultural productivity, a relationship less direct in other economic activities.
- In rural India, beyond its economic value for production, land ownership carries significant social value, providing security (for credit, against natural hazards), and enhancing social status.
Total Cultivable Land Stock
The total stock of agricultural land resources (total cultivable land) includes the net sown area, all fallow lands, and culturable wasteland. Over the years, there has been a slight decrease in this total cultivable land as a percentage of the reporting area, partly due to conversion to non-agricultural uses. Notably, even cultivated land has slightly declined despite a decrease in culturable wasteland (some being brought under cultivation).
| Agricultural Land-use Categories | % as a percentage of Reporting Area | % as a percentage of total cultivable land | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1950-51 | 2014-15 | 1950-51 | 2014-15 | |
| Culturable Waste land | 8.0 | 4.0 | 13.4 | 6.8 |
| Fallow other than Current Fallow | 6.1 | 3.6 | 10.2 | 6.2 |
| Current Fallow | 3.7 | 4.9 | 6.2 | 8.4 |
| Net Area Sown | 41.7 | 45.5 | 70.0 | 78.4 |
| Total Cultivable Land | 59.5 | 58.0 | 100.00 | 100.00 |
With limited potential to significantly increase the net sown area, India needs to focus on developing and adopting land-saving technologies. These technologies aim to increase productivity from the existing land. They can either raise the yield per unit area for a single crop or increase the total output per unit area per year by growing multiple crops (increasing land-use intensity).
For a country like India, which has limited land but abundant labor, increasing land-use intensity through practices like multiple cropping is highly desirable. It not only maximizes output from available land but also creates more demand for labor in the rural economy, helping to reduce unemployment.
Cropping Intensity (CI) is a measure of how many times a year a piece of land is cultivated. It is calculated as:
$ \text{Cropping Intensity} (\%) = \frac{\text{Gross Cropped Area (GCA)}}{\text{Net Sown Area (NSA)}} \times 100 $
Gross Cropped Area (GCA) is the total area sown with crops, counting areas sown more than once in a year as many times as they are sown. Net Sown Area (NSA) is the physical area under crops, counted only once.
Cropping Seasons In India
India experiences distinct cropping seasons, particularly in the northern and interior parts of the country, largely determined by the monsoon and temperature patterns.
| Cropping Season | Months | Major Crops Cultivated (Northern States) | Major Crops Cultivated (Southern States) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Kharif | June-September | Rice, Cotton, Bajra, Maize, Jowar, Tur | Rice, Maize, Ragi, Jowar, Groundnut |
| Rabi | October – March | Wheat, Gram, Rapeseeds and Mustard, Barley | Rice, Maize, Ragi, Groundnut, Jowar |
| Zaid | April–June | Vegetables, Fruits, Fodder | Vegetables, Fruits, Fodder |
In the northern and interior regions, there are three main seasons:
- Kharif Season: Coincides with the Southwest Monsoon (June-September). Characterized by high temperatures and humidity. Tropical crops like rice, cotton, jute, jowar, bajra, and tur are grown.
- Rabi Season: Begins with the onset of winter (October-November) and ends in March-April. Lower temperatures allow for the cultivation of temperate and subtropical crops such as wheat, gram, and mustard.
- Zaid Season: A short summer cropping season after the rabi harvest (April-June). Cultivation of crops like watermelons, cucumbers, vegetables, and fodder is possible on irrigated lands.
In southern India, this clear distinction is less prominent due to consistently high temperatures throughout the year. Tropical crops can be grown in any season if sufficient soil moisture is available. This allows for the possibility of growing the same crop multiple times in a single agricultural year.
Types Of Farming
Farming practices in India can be categorised based on the source of moisture for crops and the objective of irrigation:
- Irrigated Farming: Crops receive water from irrigation systems. It can be further classified based on the purpose of irrigation:
- Protective Irrigation: Aims to protect crops from drought stress by providing supplementary water over and above rainfall. The goal is to provide moisture to the maximum possible area.
- Productive Irrigation: Focuses on providing sufficient water to maximize productivity and achieve high yields. Water input per unit area is higher than in protective irrigation.
- Rainfed (Barani) Farming: Crops depend solely on rainfall for moisture. This is classified based on the adequacy of rainfall during the cropping season:
- Dryland Farming: Practiced in regions with low annual rainfall (less than 75 cm). Focuses on hardy, drought-resistant crops (ragi, bajra, moong, gram, guar - fodder) and employs soil moisture conservation and rainwater harvesting techniques.
- Wetland Farming: Occurs in regions with excessive rainfall that meets or exceeds plant moisture requirements during the rainy season. These areas may face risks of floods and soil erosion. Water-intensive crops like rice, jute, and sugarcane are grown, and aquaculture may be practiced.
Foodgrains
Foodgrains are crops cultivated for human consumption as staple foods. They are extremely important in India's agricultural economy, occupying approximately two-thirds of the total cropped area. They are dominant crops across the country, regardless of whether the agricultural economy is subsistence or commercial. Foodgrains are broadly classified into cereals and pulses based on their grain structure.
Cereals
Cereals are monocotyledonous plants that yield edible grains, serving as staple foods. In India, cereals cover about 54% of the total cropped area. India is a significant producer of cereals globally, ranking third after China and the USA (though specific ranks vary by year/source). Cereals are further divided into fine grains (rice, wheat) and coarse grains (jowar, bajra, maize, ragi).
Rice
Rice is the staple food for the majority of Indians. Although primarily a tropical crop, various varieties are grown across different agro-climatic zones in India, from sea level up to 2,000m altitude and in both humid eastern regions and irrigated dry western/northern regions. In southern states and West Bengal, climatic conditions support growing 2-3 crops of rice annually ('aus', 'aman', 'boro' in West Bengal). In the Himalayas and northwestern parts, it is a kharif crop grown during the Southwest Monsoon.
India is the second largest producer of rice after China, contributing over 22% of global production. Rice cultivation covers about one-fourth of the total cropped area in India. West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, and Punjab are the leading producing states. Yields are high in states like Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Haryana, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, West Bengal, and Kerala, particularly in areas with high irrigation coverage. The Green Revolution significantly boosted rice cultivation in traditionally non-rice growing irrigated areas like Punjab and Haryana, using HYVs, fertilizers, and pesticides, benefiting from drier conditions reducing pest susceptibility. Yields remain low in rainfed areas like Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, and Odisha.
Wheat
Wheat is India's second most important cereal after rice, contributing about 12.8% of global production (2017). It is primarily a temperate crop, cultivated in India during the winter (rabi) season. Around 85% of wheat cultivation is concentrated in the north and central regions, including the Indo-Gangetic Plain, Malwa Plateau, and parts of the Himalayas. As a rabi crop, it is mostly grown under irrigated conditions, though some areas (Himalayan highlands, parts of Malwa plateau) rely on rainfall.
Wheat occupies about 14% of the total cropped area. Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan are the leading wheat-producing states. Yields are very high in Punjab and Haryana (over 4,000 kg/ha) due to irrigation and modern practices, while states like UP, Rajasthan, and Bihar have moderate yields. Low yields are observed in rainfed areas like parts of Madhya Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, and Jammu and Kashmir.
Jowar
Jowar (Sorghum) is a coarse cereal and a staple food in semi-arid central and southern India. It covers about 5.3% of the total cropped area. Maharashtra is the largest producer, accounting for over half the national output. Other producers include Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana. Jowar is grown in both kharif and rabi seasons in the south but is mainly a kharif fodder crop in the north. It is largely a rainfed crop south of the Vindhyas, with low yields in this region.
Bajra
Bajra is a hardy coarse cereal grown in hot and dry conditions in northwestern and western India. It is drought-resistant and cultivated both alone and as part of mixed cropping. It occupies about 5.2% of the total cropped area. Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, and Haryana are leading producers. Recent years have seen increased yields in Rajasthan, Haryana, and Gujarat due to drought-resistant varieties and irrigation expansion.
Maize
Maize is used as both food and fodder, grown in semi-arid climates on less fertile soils. It occupies about 3.6% of the cropped area and is cultivated across India, except in Punjab and parts of the east/north-east. Leading producers include Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh. Yields are higher than other coarse cereals, particularly in southern states, declining towards central parts.
Pulses
Pulses are leguminous crops crucial for vegetarian diets as a rich source of proteins. They enhance soil fertility through nitrogen fixation. India is the world's leading producer of pulses. Cultivation is concentrated in the drylands of the Deccan and central plateaus and northwestern India, covering about 11% of the cropped area. As rainfed crops in dry areas, yields are low and vary year to year. Gram and tur are the main pulses grown.
Gram
Gram is a subtropical pulse, primarily rainfed, grown in the rabi season in central, western, and northwestern India. It requires minimal irrigation. Its cultivation has decreased in states like Haryana, Punjab, and northern Rajasthan due to displacement by wheat following the Green Revolution. Gram covers about 2.8% of the total cropped area. Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and Rajasthan are main producers. Yields remain low and fluctuate, even in irrigated areas.
Tur (Arhar)
Tur (Red Gram or Pigeon Pea) is India's second most important pulse. It is cultivated on marginal, rainfed lands in dry areas of central and southern states, occupying about 2% of the total cropped area. Maharashtra accounts for roughly one-third of tur production. Other producers include Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, and Madhya Pradesh. Yields are very low and inconsistent.
Oilseeds
Oilseeds are crops grown specifically for extracting edible oils. Major oilseed-growing regions include drylands of the Malwa plateau, Marathwada, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh (Rayalseema), and Karnataka plateau. Oilseeds collectively cover about 14% of the total cropped area. Groundnut, rapeseed and mustard, soyabean, and sunflower are the primary oilseed crops.
Groundnut
India contributes about 18.8% of global groundnut production (2018). It is primarily a rainfed kharif crop in drylands but also grown in the rabi season in southern India. It covers about 3.6% of the cropped area. Gujarat, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Maharashtra are leading producers. Yields are relatively high in Tamil Nadu (partially irrigated) but low in Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka (rainfed).
Rapeseed And Mustard
This category includes oilseeds like rai, sarson, toria, and taramira. They are subtropical rabi crops grown in northwestern and central India. They are sensitive to frost and yields fluctuate. Irrigation and improved seed technology have helped stabilise yields. These crops cover about 2.5% of the cropped area. Rajasthan is the largest producer, followed by Haryana and Madhya Pradesh. Yields are higher in Haryana and Rajasthan.
Other Oilseeds
Soyabean and sunflower are also important oilseeds. Soyabean is mainly grown in Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra, which together account for about 90% of production. Sunflower cultivation is concentrated in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and adjoining Maharashtra. It is a minor crop in the north with higher yields due to irrigation.
Fibre Crops
Fibre crops provide raw materials for textiles, bags, sacks, and other products. Cotton and jute are the main fibre crops grown in India.
Cotton
Cotton is a tropical kharif crop grown in semi-arid areas. India is the second largest producer globally after China and accounts for about 4.7% of the total cropped area. India grows both short-staple (Indian) and long-staple (American 'narma') cotton. Cotton requires clear skies during flowering. Major growing areas are parts of Punjab, Haryana, northern Rajasthan (north-west), Gujarat and Maharashtra (west), and plateaus of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu (south). Leading producers are Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Telangana. Yields are high in irrigated northwestern regions but low in rainfed Maharashtra.
Jute
Jute is a cash crop used for making coarse cloth, bags, sacks, and decorative items, primarily grown in West Bengal and adjoining eastern states. India is a major producer, accounting for about three-fifths of world production (though this proportion can vary). West Bengal is the dominant producer (about three-fourths of national output), with Bihar and Assam also growing jute. It covers only about 0.5% of the total cropped area.
Other Crops
Other important crops cultivated in India include sugarcane, tea, and coffee.
Sugarcane
Sugarcane is a tropical crop, cultivated in sub-humid and humid climates under rainfed conditions, but largely grown with irrigation in India. Cultivation is concentrated in Uttar Pradesh (Indo-Gangetic plain) and western India (Maharashtra, Gujarat). In southern India, it's grown in irrigated areas of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, and Andhra Pradesh.
India is the world's second largest producer of sugarcane after Brazil (2018), contributing about 19.7% of global production. It occupies 2.4% of India's cropped area. Uttar Pradesh accounts for about two-fifths of national production. Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh are other major producers with high yields. Yields are lower in northern India.
Tea
Tea is a plantation beverage crop grown on undulating topography of hilly areas with well-drained soils in humid and sub-humid tropical/sub-tropical regions. Black tea is fermented, while green tea is unfermented; both contain caffeine and tannin. Tea cultivation started in India in the 1840s in the Brahmaputra valley (Assam), which remains a major area. It's also grown in the sub-Himalayan region of West Bengal (Darjeeling, Jalpaiguri, Cooch Behar) and on lower slopes of the Nilgiri and Cardamom hills (Western Ghats).
India is a leading producer (about 21.22% of world production in 2018) and ranks second in tea exports globally. Assam accounts for about 53.2% of the cropped area under tea and contributes over half of national production. West Bengal and Tamil Nadu are other leading producers.
Coffee
Coffee is a tropical plantation crop whose roasted and ground seeds are used for beverage. Three main varieties exist: arabica, robusta, and liberica. India primarily grows the high-quality arabica variety, popular internationally. India produces about 3.17% of global coffee (2018) and ranks eighth worldwide. Cultivation is concentrated in the highlands of the Western Ghats in Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu. Karnataka contributes over two-thirds of India's coffee production.
Agricultural Development In India
Before Independence, Indian agriculture was largely subsistence-oriented and performed poorly in the first half of the 20th century, facing severe droughts and famines. The partition of India transferred a significant portion of irrigated land to Pakistan, reducing irrigated area in independent India. The immediate goal after Independence was to increase foodgrain production by shifting from cash crops to food crops, intensifying cultivation on existing land, and expanding cultivated area by bringing waste and fallow land under the plough.
Initial strategies boosted production, but stagnation occurred in the late 1950s. To address food crises (like those in the mid-1960s), programs like the Intensive Agricultural District Programme (IADP) and Intensive Agricultural Area Programme (IAAP) were launched. India imported foodgrains during this period.
The mid-1960s saw the availability of High Yielding Varieties (HYVs) of wheat (from Mexico) and rice (from the Philippines). India adopted a 'package technology' involving HYVs, chemical fertilizers, and pesticides, focusing on irrigated areas in Punjab, Haryana, Western UP, Andhra Pradesh, and Gujarat. Assured irrigation was essential for this technology's success. This strategy led to a rapid increase in foodgrain production, known as the Green Revolution, making India self-reliant in foodgrains.
The Green Revolution also stimulated the growth of agro-input industries, agro-processing, and small-scale industries. However, it initially concentrated benefits in irrigated areas, creating regional disparities until the technology spread to central and eastern parts of the country later. In the 1980s, attention turned to rainfed agriculture. Agro-climatic planning (initiated in 1988) aimed for regionally balanced development and emphasized diversification into activities like dairy farming, poultry, horticulture, and aquaculture. The liberalisation policies from the 1990s onwards further influenced Indian agricultural development.
Growth Of Agricultural Output And Technology
Over the last 50 years, India has witnessed substantial growth in agricultural output and significant adoption of modern technology.
Key Achievements
- Impressive increases in the production and yield of major crops like rice, wheat, sugarcane, oilseeds, and cotton.
- Expansion of irrigated area, providing a foundation for adopting modern technologies like HYVs, chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and farm machinery. Net irrigated area has increased.
- Rapid diffusion of modern agricultural technology across the country. Use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides has increased significantly since the mid-1960s, although HYVs are more susceptible to pests and diseases.
National Mission For Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA)
The NMSA is a government initiative focused on making agriculture more sustainable, productive, profitable, and resilient to climate change. It promotes location-specific, integrated farming systems and emphasizes conserving natural resources, particularly soil and moisture.
Farmer’S Portal Of India
The Farmer's Portal is an online platform providing farmers with information on various agricultural topics, including insurance, storage, crops, extension services, seeds, pesticides, farm machinery, fertilizers, market prices, farming practices, government programs, and welfare schemes. It also offers interactive maps for soil fertility and block-level details, and resources like handbooks and scheme guidelines.
Problems Of Indian Agriculture
Despite progress, Indian agriculture faces numerous challenges, some specific to certain agro-ecological regions, while others are common across the country, ranging from physical limitations to institutional obstacles.
Dependence On Erratic Monsoon
A large portion of India's cultivated land (about 67%) still relies directly on rainfall as irrigation covers only about one-third of the area. The performance of the Southwest Monsoon is often erratic and spatially uneven, making rainfed agriculture vulnerable. Poor monsoon can also reduce water availability for canal irrigation. Droughts are common in low rainfall areas, but even high rainfall areas can experience significant fluctuations, leading to vulnerability to both droughts and floods. Droughts and floods remain persistent challenges for Indian agriculture.
Low Productivity
Compared to international standards, the per hectare yields of many major crops (rice, wheat, cotton, oilseeds) in India are relatively low. High population pressure on limited land resources also results in low labor productivity in Indian agriculture compared to global levels. Yields are particularly low in vast rainfed areas, especially drylands cultivating coarse cereals, pulses, and oilseeds.
Constraints Of Financial Resources And Indebtedness
Modern agriculture requires significant financial investment in inputs like quality seeds, fertilizers, and machinery. These costs are often unmanageable for marginal and small farmers who have limited savings. To afford these inputs, many farmers rely on borrowing from institutions and moneylenders. However, factors like crop failures, uncertain yields, and low market returns can trap them in a cycle of debt, leading to severe financial distress.
Lack Of Land Reforms
Historical inequalities in land distribution, stemming partly from exploitative revenue systems during the British period (like Zamindari), have persisted. Despite according priority to land reforms after Independence (e.g., land ceiling acts, tenancy reforms), their implementation has often been ineffective due to a lack of strong political commitment, particularly where powerful landowning lobbies opposed changes. Unequal distribution of cultivable land continues to hinder equitable agricultural development.
Small Farm Size And Fragmentation Of Landholdings
Increasing population pressure has led to the continuous division of land among heirs, resulting in a large number of small and marginal farms. Furthermore, landholdings in India are often fragmented into multiple, scattered plots rather than being consolidated into a single piece. While consolidation of holdings has been attempted in some states, subsequent divisions lead to re-fragmentation. Small and fragmented holdings make farming less economically viable and hinder the efficient use of modern machinery and practices.
Lack Of Commercialisation
A significant number of farmers, particularly small and marginal ones with limited land, still practice subsistence farming, producing crops primarily for their own family's consumption rather than for the market. They lack the surplus and resources to engage in commercial-scale agriculture. While commercialisation has occurred in irrigated areas, a large segment of the farming population remains outside this trend, limiting overall agricultural transformation.
Vast Underemployment
Indian agriculture, especially in unirrigated regions, suffers from substantial underemployment (disguised unemployment) and seasonal unemployment. Work is often unavailable for significant periods (4 to 8 months) outside the main cropping seasons. Even during cultivation periods, agricultural operations may not provide continuous labor demand, resulting in people engaged in agriculture not having work throughout the year.
Degradation Of Cultivable Land
Faulty irrigation practices and certain agricultural development strategies have led to the degradation of valuable land resources, impacting soil fertility. This is particularly severe in irrigated areas where excessive irrigation can cause alkalisation and salinisation of soils and waterlogging. Overuse of chemical fertilizers, insecticides, and pesticides accumulates toxic substances in the soil. Displacing nitrogen-fixing leguminous crops and reducing fallow periods in intensive multiple cropping systems diminish the natural replenishment of soil fertility through nitrogen fixation. Rainfed areas also face degradation through soil erosion by water and wind, often exacerbated by human activities.